Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects

Date of Degree

2-2025

Document Type

Dissertation

Degree Name

Ph.D.

Program

Psychology

Advisor

Harold Goldstein

Committee Members

Charles Scherbaum

Deepshikha Chatterjee

Yochi Cohen-Charash

Andrea Bazzoli

Subject Categories

Industrial and Organizational Psychology | Leadership Studies | Quantitative Psychology

Keywords

Leadership, distance, hybrid work, behavior, effectiveness, virtual work

Abstract

With a sharp increase in virtual working arrangements in recent years, there is a distinct need to reevaluate what constitutes effective leadership at a distance. Although research on virtual leadership exists, it has often lacked a focus on specific leader behaviors and the psychological intricacies unique to virtual work settings. The present study examines followers' perceived effectiveness of two enduring leadership behavior categories: task-oriented and relationship-oriented. Utilizing dyadic distance theory, the study tested whether perceived effectiveness of these behaviors is contingent not only on the tangible effects of virtual work, referred to as structural distance, but also on the intangible psychological distance between leaders and followers. Employing a cross-sectional survey design, 186 participants from a variety of industries and occupations were recruited through an online crowdsourcing platform. Results showed that both task-oriented and relationship-oriented behaviors positively predicted perceptions of leadership effectiveness. While task-oriented behaviors were unaffected by structural or psychological distance alone, relationship-oriented behaviors were significantly enhanced by greater distance on both dimensions. However, while task-oriented behaviors remained consistently effective, their influence diminished when both structural and psychological distance were high. Structural distance was parsed into physical separation and perceived inaccessibility, with only inaccessibility showing no moderating effect on leader behaviors. Supplementary analyses identified follower expectations as a significant mediator between leader behaviors and perceived effectiveness, and five of ten specific leader behavior sub-dimensions emerged as the strongest predictors of leader effectiveness. Theoretically, these findings reaffirm the foundational task- and relationship-oriented categories established in the Ohio State leadership studies and underscore dyadic distance as a contingency factor of effective leadership. Practically, the results suggest that organizations should encourage leaders to prioritize relationship-oriented behaviors, specifically support and recognition, in virtual contexts. Furthermore, development programs enhancing these behaviors may be particularly beneficial in virtual and hybrid work arrangements.

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